The Return to Virtue

Alasdair MacIntyre's moral philosophy, centered on narrative identity, community, and ethical revival, offers a pivotal concept in contemporary moral discourse. This article explores his profound contributions to understanding the fragmentation of modern ethics and his compelling advocacy for a return to virtue.

The Return to Virtue with Alasdair MacIntyre is a pivotal concept in contemporary moral philosophy, largely shaped by the works of Scottish philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre. Born in 1929, MacIntyre has critically examined the fragmentation of modern ethical discourse, advocating for a revival of Aristotelian virtue ethics in response to a moral landscape he views as chaotic and devoid of coherent narratives. His influential text, After Virtue (1981), argues that the contemporary ethical crisis arises from the disintegration of shared moral traditions, leading to a disconnect between individual identity and communal values.

MacIntyre's philosophy centers on the notions of narrative identity and community, proposing that personal ethics cannot be divorced from the cultural and historical contexts in which individuals reside. He asserts that a return to virtue involves acknowledging the importance of communal practices and shared narratives, which are essential for moral growth and understanding. His critiques highlight the limitations of modern moral theories, such as utilitarianism and deontology, which often prioritize individual autonomy over collective well-being, resulting in ethical ambiguity and conflict.

We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.

Aristotle

The revival of virtue ethics is not without its controversies. Critics of MacIntyre argue that his idealization of premodern moral traditions can overlook their potential for enforcing conformity and suppressing dissent. Moreover, the practical implications of his vision for community-based ethics face challenges within the complexities of contemporary political and social structures, raising questions about the feasibility of restoring ethical traditions in a pluralistic society. Nonetheless, MacIntyre's work has sparked significant dialogue and reflection on the role of community and tradition in moral philosophy, reinforcing the necessity of a shared ethical framework for navigating the complexities of modern life.

Background

Alasdair MacIntyre, born in Glasgow in 1929, is a prominent Scottish philosopher known for his work in moral philosophy and narrative identity. He graduated with a degree in Classics from Queen Mary College, London, in 1949, followed by an M.A. from Manchester University in 1951, during a time when academic credentials did not always necessitate a doctorate. His early academic career included positions at Manchester, Leeds, and the universities of Oxford and Princeton, before he moved to the United States to teach at Brandeis University in 1969. He later held various professorial roles at Boston University, Vanderbilt University, Duke University, and ultimately settled at the University of Notre Dame.

MacIntyre's philosophical inquiries are deeply rooted in a historicist account of morality, emphasizing the importance of narrative in the formation of individual and communal identities. His seminal work, After Virtue, published in 1981, critiques contemporary moral philosophy and argues for a revival of Aristotelian ethics, highlighting the need for a return to virtue in a fragmented moral landscape. This work, along with subsequent titles such as Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (1988) and Dependent Rational Animals (1999), has established MacIntyre as a key figure in discussions around ethical revival, community, and the breakdown of shared moral narratives in modern society.

MacIntyre's exploration of narrative identity proposes that individuals derive their sense of self through the stories embedded within their cultural and historical contexts. He asserts that education plays a crucial role in this development, encouraging students to navigate the complex relationship between myths and truths as they mature. His insights have fostered a dialogue around the role of tradition and community in shaping moral understanding, underscoring the necessity of a shared narrative in the pursuit of ethical living.

Philosophical Context

The Nature of Moral Philosophy

Alasdair MacIntyre's work critiques the prevailing currents of modern moral philosophy, particularly its focus on autonomy and the tendency to divorce ethics from historical contexts. He argues that this fragmentation leads to a lack of narrative coherence in individuals' lives, making it difficult for them to engage in morally meaningful actions. MacIntyre asserts that contemporary moral theory has become part of the problem rather than a solution, resulting in a philosophical impasse marked by conflict and inconsistency.

Historical Influences

MacIntyre contends that moral philosophy must be contextualized within a historical framework to regain its significance. He emphasizes that the language of morality has become decontextualized, contributing to a "state of disorder" in modern ethical discourse. By revisiting the traditions of Aristotle and Thomistic philosophy, MacIntyre seeks to restore a sense of the common good and the theological dimensions that underpin moral reasoning. His approach implies that understanding virtues is essential for achieving eudaimonia, or human flourishing, which is not merely an individual endeavor but a communal one.

Tensions in Ethical Theory

Central to MacIntyre's critique is the recognition of an "inescapable tension" between adherence to unconditional moral rules and the pursuit of well-being. This tension manifests in practical moral life through oscillation and ambiguity in ethical commitments, which he sees as a response to the crises of modernity. In this view, the fragmentation of moral philosophy reflects broader societal conflicts, making it imperative for philosophers to articulate concepts rooted in everyday practices to facilitate more coherent moral lives.

Revival of Virtue Ethics

MacIntyre's philosophical project calls for a revival of virtue ethics, aligning with Aristotelian principles that prioritize character and community over abstract moral rules. He advocates for a holistic understanding of ethics that incorporates narratives, practices, and the shared values of communities. By doing so, MacIntyre aims to mend the divide between theory and practice, fostering a more integrated approach to moral reasoning that acknowledges the complexities of human life and relationships.

Key Concepts

Personalist Moral Psychology

Alasdair MacIntyre's moral philosophy emphasizes the importance of personalist moral psychology, which integrates virtue, community, and narrative identity. He argues that the flourishing of virtues necessitates a certain type of community, ideally a small-scale one, where individuals can cultivate their character through shared experiences and mutual support. MacIntyre asserts that understanding one's actions and intentions is deeply intertwined with the social bonds that form one's ethos, which is developed through practical experiences and ethical assessments within a community.

The Role of Practice

Central to MacIntyre's understanding of virtue is the concept of practice, which involves engaging in activities that are directed toward internal goods specific to those practices. He critiques the modern emphasis on individual autonomy, advocating instead for a model of ethical reflection that acknowledges the significance of historical context and communal participation in moral development. MacIntyre posits that ethical practices must be rooted in the common good, which is realized through small, participatory communities that foster rational deliberation and critique.

Narrative Identity and Self-Knowledge

MacIntyre introduces the notion of narrative identity to explain how individuals understand themselves in relation to their life stories and the communities they belong to. He contends that personal identity is not an abstract concept but rather shaped by one's experiences and relationships within a specific socio-historical context. This narrative approach allows individuals to connect their ethical beliefs and actions to the shared values of their community, providing a basis for self-knowledge that relies on the feedback and judgment of others.

The unexamined life is not worth living.

Socrates

Critique of Modern Moral Philosophy

In After Virtue, MacIntyre critiques modern moral philosophy for its failure to provide a coherent framework for ethical inquiry. He argues that attempts to reconcile individual moral autonomy with objective moral standards result in "moral fictions." MacIntyre's approach seeks to revive virtue ethics by grounding it in a secular context, challenging the notion that ethical reflection can be fully separated from theological considerations. He emphasizes that ethical theories must address the historical and social circumstances that shape moral questions and the pursuit of the common good.

Virtue and Community

MacIntyre asserts that virtues are essential not only for personal flourishing but also for the maintenance of healthy social relationships and communal life. He argues that the cultivation of virtues enables individuals to protect themselves and others from various societal ills, thus fostering a cooperative pursuit of common goals within their communities. MacIntyre's critique of modern individualism suggests that genuine moral agency can only be developed in contexts where individuals are engaged in practices that promote the common good, highlighting the interplay between personal and communal flourishing.

Breakdown of Ethical Traditions

The breakdown of ethical traditions has been a significant concern in contemporary moral philosophy, particularly highlighted by the works of philosophers such as Alasdair MacIntyre. He argues that modern moral crises stem from the fragmentation of ethical frameworks that were once cohesive within particular communities and traditions. MacIntyre emphasizes that ethical systems are deeply embedded within cultural contexts, suggesting that the understanding of morality requires a narrative that connects individuals to their historical and communal roots.

Historical Context

Historically, ethical thought has shifted from Aristotelian virtue ethics to more modern frameworks such as utilitarianism and deontology. Utilitarianism, as proposed by figures like John Stuart Mill, focuses on the outcomes of actions and the principle of utility, which seeks to maximize happiness for the greatest number of people. In contrast, Immanuel Kant’s deontological ethics posits a framework based on duty and universal moral laws, which MacIntyre critiques for its detachment from the lived experiences of individuals. This historical shift has contributed to a perceived moral vacuum, wherein individuals struggle to find meaningful guidance amid competing ethical perspectives.

Consequences of Breakdown

The disintegration of ethical traditions has led to what MacIntyre describes as a crisis in moral understanding, where individuals often feel alienated from the moral frameworks that once provided guidance and meaning. In a contemporary context, the rise of emotivism and relativism has further exacerbated this crisis, as individuals adopt a more subjective approach to ethics, often leading to moral confusion and a lack of coherence in ethical reasoning. MacIntyre contends that the absence of a shared narrative and communal practices has resulted in a diminished capacity for moral reasoning and growth.

Community and Moral Recovery

MacIntyre argues for the necessity of restoring ethical traditions rooted in community, suggesting that morality can only flourish within specific historical contexts that provide individuals with a sense of belonging and identity. He posits that true moral growth emerges from communal practices and shared narratives, which help individuals navigate their desires and choices in a morally coherent manner.